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Gender gaps in earnings persist across all regions. For every dollar men make, women make 77 cents. Closing this gap can lead to sizeable gains for economies - an estimated 160 trillion dollars in global gross domestic product (GDP) per capita. A multitude of factors contributes to this gap and this note sheds light on some of the key drivers. Effective evidence-backed policy options to close the earnings gap include providing information on work opportunities and returns to employment, training in socio-emotional skills, imparting sector-specific technical skills to address occupational segregation and adopting pay-transparency laws. ľ¹ÏÓ°Ôº Group actively supports countries to boost women¡¯s access to better, high-quality jobs through development policy lending, advisory and analytical work, and supporting reforms to address constraining contextual factors. This note examines an array of policy options that are effective or show promise in closing gender gaps in earnings and offers some key takeaways.

Digital technology has introduced innovative business models and changed how society operates. Through digital technology, access to services can be increased and more people can be reached, particularly those from underserved groups, such as women, people in rural communities and persons with disabilities. Yet, gaps in access to digital technology deepen inequalities and have social costs and economic implications. have lost out on $1 trillion in GDP due to the digital exclusion of women. (Alliance for Affordable Internet, 2021). Grounded in examples extracted from research and World Bank Group operations with client countries and clients in the private sector, this policy note presents interventions that aim to close the gaps in digital inclusion. These examples demonstrate that the public and private sectors have significant roles to play in ensuring digital technology reaches women, aligns with their needs, and strengthens their economic empowerment. This policy note provides impetus for the World Bank Group to continue strengthening its work on the digital inclusion of women and underserved groups.

The narrative among policymakers about women¡¯s entrepreneurship is slowly shifting from encouraging the creation of a high number of startups to focusing on supporting women who are well positioned to lead growth-oriented enterprises. Innovative women entrepreneurs can be agents of change and provide new solutions to global challenges, yet they face multiple barriers to growing their businesses. This policy brief examines the following four areas of constraints and provides evidence on measures to reduce gender gaps in each:

1. Human capital, including gender gaps in access to skills and networks 
2. Factors constraining access to finance 
3. Factors constraining technology uptake and market expansion 
4. Contextual factors, including legal and regulatory constraints, social norms, access to care, and gender-based violence.

Women and disadvantaged groups tend to be more affected by climate change across various dimensions, including health, livelihoods, and agency. Gender gaps are increasingly seen as barriers to effective mitigation and adaptation strategies. Women are also critical leaders and participants of low-carbon transitions. This policy note investigates how gender equality and climate change intersect; explores programmatic experience on the gender-climate nexus; identifies promising entry points and solutions; and offers recommendations for development practitioners, policymakers, and businesses.

Gender gaps in labor force participation persist worldwide. Closing this gap can lead to sizeable gains for economies¡ªa 20 percent increase in GDP per capita, on average. Female labor force participation (FLFP) remains low due to lack of skills, assets and networks, time-based constraints, limited mobility, gender discrimination in hiring and promotion, and restrictive gender norms. Effective evidence-backed policy options can increase FLFP. They include providing childcare services, disseminating information on work opportunities and returns to employment, training in socio-emotional skills, addressing norms by engaging partners and family members, and targeting women via social protection, safety net, and public-works programs. ľ¹ÏÓ°Ôº Group actively supports countries in boosting FLFP through development policy lending, advisory and analytical work, and supporting reforms to address constraining contextual factors, including legal barriers, social norms, and gender-based violence. This note sheds light on an array of policy options that are effective or show promise in improving FLFP.

Better gender balance in business leadership is inextricably linked with achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). By definition, attainment of SDG 5, gender equality, is impossible without women¡¯s equal representation at the top. Women leaders are levers of change for all SDGs, as they prioritize social protections, health, education, climate, and inclusivity. Having more women in leadership is positively correlated with higher environmental, social, and governance (ESG) standards, leading to improved business performance and inclusive economic growth. Yet, enormous gender gaps in corporate leadership persist. Globally, women hold only 19.7 percent of board seats, and 6.7 percent of board chair, 5 percent of CEO, and 15.7 percent of CFO positions. Unconscious and cultural biases, lack of opportunities, and other workforce barriers can limit women¡¯s professional aspirations and narrow leadership paths. While direct cause-and-effect links cannot always be demonstrated, World Bank Group interventions that address the root causes of gender gaps in business leadership offer strong potential for progress. This note examines World Bank Group experience and provides several strategies that other programs can consider to accelerate the pace at which women ascend to senior leadership positions.

This thematic note emphasizes the role of laws and regulations in safeguarding women¡¯s economic opportunities, for the purpose of informing the update of the World Bank Group¡¯s Gender Strategy. The note demonstrates the importance of legal gender equality and draws on data and analysis from the World Bank¡¯s Women, Business and the Law initiative and other evidence to explore legal barriers that hinder women¡¯s economic participation and showcase successful reforms. It also offers examples of how World Bank projects have addressed legal frameworks toward gender equality and concludes with proposals for future areas of operational focus and research.

This thematic note outlines the evolution, challenges, and priorities related to gender data that can inform not only World Bank Group operations but also highlight opportunities for engagement with external stakeholders. It summarizes the World Bank Group¡¯s programmatic experience in improving the availability, quality, processing, dissemination, and use of gender data; and offers recommendations.

This thematic note explores the barriers and impediments to women¡¯s HLP rights. It shares emerging evidence on what works to support women in attaining the full range of HLP rights, including experience from World Bank and other donor financed projects and interventions that have shown promise.

This thematic note provides a summary of existing evidence in applying a social norms lens to development policy, including guidance on defining, measuring, and changing social norms, with specific guidance for WBG task teams and recommendations for policymakers.

The care economy is essential in daily life and a driver of economic growth, human capital development, and employment. Gender is a defining characteristic of the care economy. Women spend 3.2 times more time on unpaid care work than men and constitute the majority of the care workforce. Disproportionate unpaid care responsibilities and a lack of access to quality, accessible, affordable care services impede women¡¯s economic participation and affect their overall well-being. Investments in the care sector are essential to accelerate equality and could generate up to 299 million jobs worldwide by 2035. Globally, the need for care services is high. Worldwide, 43 percent of all children below primary-school-entry age¡ª350 million children¡ªneed childcare but do not have access to it. The need for eldercare is also growing as the population continues to age and face chronic health conditions. ľ¹ÏÓ°Ôº actively supports countries in addressing this care crisis. This thematic policy note reviews many of the issues, evidence, and lessons learned.

This note provides an overview of the situation of LGBTI people globally and why addressing discrimination against them and promoting their inclusion make economic sense as well as being the right thing to do. It lays out the authorizing environment for SOGI inclusion at the World Bank and highlights promising practices of SOGI inclusion, including in data generation and operations from the World Bank and public and private sector partners. The note highlights opportunities to advance SOGI inclusion through the three strategic objectives of the World Bank¡¯s Gender Strategy update, namely ending gender-based violence and elevating human capital, expanding and enabling economic opportunities, and engaging women as leaders. ľ¹ÏÓ°Ôº and development partners can also better integrate SOGI inclusion in their work on gender data generation, evaluation and learning, policy and institutional reforms, and capacity building.

ľ¹ÏÓ°Ôº is the largest external financier of education worldwide. This note examines trends in girls¡¯ education and spotlights interventions that support girls¡¯ education. Key takeaways include the following: It is simply not enough to get girls into school. Efforts must ensure they stay in school, learn well, and are able to translate their schooling into future gains. Programs that focus on getting girls into school through scholarships, cash transfers, and stipends improve girls¡¯ enrollment outcomes. Interventions that address additional challenges that girls face while in school, such as improving conditions for menstrual health and hygiene and reducing gender-based violence (GBV), make girls feel safe and included in schools. Teaching and learning-focused programs for girls, such as combating stereotypical gender norms in pedagogy, textbooks, and curriculum, help reduce gender-bias in schools and empower them to reach their full potential. It is important to strengthen the role of schools for adolescent girls¡¯ empowerment and for shifting mindsets and norms by engaging girls and boys on issues pertaining to gender equality including on GBV, Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights (SRHR), and women¡¯s economic participation.

Gender-based Violence (GBV) is the most egregious manifestation of gender inequality and an alarming global public health, human rights and development challenge. It is most often perpetrated against women and girls. This note reviews available data and evidence on GBV, outlines promising approaches, and presents strategic and operational recommendations. The following key messages serve as a call-to-action to policymakers, practitioners, researchers, and organizations seeking to eradicate GBV:

• GBV prevention and response clear the path to reach development goals, including gender equality. 
• Institutionalizing GBV prevention and response across sectors, supported by adequate financing, can help prevent violence. Investments in technical expertise are essential. 
• Collaboration and coordination with international and national partners as well as the private sector are critical for inclusive, sustainable, and deeper engagements. Supporting national coordinating bodies can enhance an effective and coherent multi-sectoral approach.

Fragility, conflict, and violence (FCV) significantly impact women and girls, exacerbating gender-based violence and limiting access to rights and services due to weakened institutions. Positive changes can emerge from crises, providing opportunities to reshape social norms and empower women. Achieving gender equality in these settings requires tailored approaches that consider local dynamics and involve influential non-state actors. ľ¹ÏÓ°Ôº Group's experience suggests that partnerships, strengthened laws, and inclusive policies can enhance outcomes. Sustainable progress demands increased investment, innovation in data collection, and collaboration among governments, NGOs, and the private sector to address these complex challenges effectively.

Gender significantly impacts health outcomes, influencing lifestyle, well-being, and healthcare access throughout a person¡¯s life. Bridging gender gaps in health can enhance human capital and ensure equitable health opportunities for all sexes. Achieving gender equity in health necessitates a systematic approach across health systems, with universal health coverage (UHC) and integrated primary health care (PHC) services providing a crucial platform. Five priority investment areas are highlighted: comprehensive sexual, reproductive, adolescent, and maternal health services; healthcare coverage for older adults; gender equality in health leadership; mental health coverage under UHC; and reducing gender disparities in pandemic preparedness and emergency response. These investments can empower women, girls, and other gender identities, support healthy aging, improve mental health access, and ensure effective health leadership and pandemic response.

Significant gender gaps in labor force participation persist around the world. When women do work, they are much more likely than men to engage in vulnerable employment with lower earnings and worse working conditions. In addition, the COVID-19 pandemic has triggered larger losses in employment for women than for men across the globe. Several factors constrain women¡¯s labor force participation and employment outcomes. On the supply side, time and mobility constraints and differences in endowments (skills, assets, and networks) limit women¡¯s labor force participation and wages. On the demand side, discrimination in hiring and retention, lack of jobs with convenient features (childcare, maternity leave, flexible schedules), and skills mismatch are key constraints. All these are combined with contextual factors, including social and cultural norms, that restrict women¡¯s labor force participation. The GIL Federation is generating rigorous evidence around the world to understand what works, and what does not, in supporting women¡¯s labor market participation. This note presents evidence on seven key findings.

Several circumstances make women more vulnerable to economic shocks than men. Women are more likely than men to be out of the labor force due to care responsibilities. When they work, women are more likely to have low-paying jobs in the informal sector. Moreover, women have lower access to financial services and other strategies to mitigate shocks. Social protection systems can enable women to cope with and adapt to economic shocks. In particular, adaptive social protection systems can help identify the differential needs of women to prepare support mechanisms and build the resilience of poor and vulnerable households before, during, and after large shocks like the COVID-19 pandemic occur. The GIL Federation is generating rigorous evidence around the world to understand what works, and what does not, in supporting women with social protection interventions. This note presents evidence on four key findings based on impact evaluations.

Significant progress has been made in closing gender gaps in primary and secondary enrollment rates worldwide. However, girls still have lower expected years of schooling than boys in some regions, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa, and boys have worse educational outcomes than girls in other countries, most notably in Latin America and the Caribbean. Barriers to the continuation of schooling for girls are linked to child marriage, early pregnancies, sexual harassment, and social norms around girls¡¯ education. The COVID-19 pandemic has also impacted schooling of both girls and boys. The transition to remote learning hurt girls who often have fewer technical skills and less access to the internet than boys. In other cases, boys had higher economic opportunities than girls and were more likely to drop out from school in response to the economic stress generated by the pandemic. The GIL Federation is generating rigorous evidence around the world to understand what works, and what does not, in narrowing gender gaps in education. This note presents evidence on three key findings.

Land is a key productive asset for rural households. Property rights play a critical role in determining who can own and access this fundamental resource. More than 70 percent of women across 53 developing countries do not own any land. Customary norms confer disproportionately weaker land rights to women, feeding into a cycle that limits their access to credit and other economic opportunities. Empowering women through stronger land rights can play a central role in the process of economic development. However, overturning existing cultural norms and power structures in the context of traditional (patriarchal) customary land tenure systems can be challenging. There are also concerns that such policy efforts could formalize, even exacerbate, existing gender gaps in land rights. The GIL Federation is generating rigorous evidence around the world to understand what works, and what does not, in increasing access to land titles for women and its effects on women¡¯s empowerment. This note presents evidence on three key findings.

Gender productivity gaps in agriculture are large around the world, even though women comprise 40¨C50 percent of the agricultural labor force in developing countries. Gender differences in agricultural productivity can be as high as 66 percent and can cost countries up to $105 million annually. Women farmers tend to produce lower output per unit of land than men farmers because of gender-specific constraints, such as unequal access to farm labor, agricultural inputs, lower literacy, childcare responsibilities, limited involvement in cash crop production, and lower participation in farmers¡¯ groups. Women farmers are concentrated in the lower levels of agricultural value chains and are less likely to be active in commercial farming than men. Restrictive gender norms underlie occupational sex segregation in agriculture, leading women to concentrate in low-value crops. Research by the Africa GIL indicates that when women manage cash crop plots¡ªand have access to the same inputs and resources as men¡ªthey are able to be as productive as their male counterparts. The GIL Federation is generating rigorous evidence around the world to understand what works, and what does not, in narrowing gender productivity gaps and helping farmers reach their potential. This note presents evidence on three key findings based on impact evaluations.

Unpaid care work and the lack of access to affordable child care constitute key barriers to women¡¯s participation in labor markets. The International Labour Organization estimates that, in 2018, 647 million working-age adults were hindered from entering the workforce due to family responsibilities¡ª94 percent of whom were women. In that year, women¡¯s unpaid care work amounted to three-quarters of total unpaid care work, with an estimated value of 9 precent of global GDP. A pilot study by the MNA GIL in Egypt finds that, on average, mothers spent 11 hours per day on childcare and seven hours per day doing household chores. The EAP GIL reviewed causal evidence on the effects of childcare interventions on maternal labor market engagement in low and middle-income countries and found positive impacts for 21 out of the 22 studies considered.

Entrepreneurship can be a pathway to employment and economic empowerment for women. Over half of the women in developing countries are or aspire to be entrepreneurs, but most of them run subsistence oriented micro-businesses that are not seen as key drivers of innovation and growth. Among formal firms, the share of women-led businesses decreases as the size of the firm increases. Multiple factors¡ªincluding lack of skills, networks, and access to finance, technology, and markets¡ªconstrain women¡¯s decision to become entrepreneurs and affect their choices concerning which sector to enter, how much to put into their firms, and which business practices and technology to adopt. Contextual factors, such as social norms, access to childcare, and risk of gender-based violence, also contribute to the gender gap in firm performance documented by the Africa GIL and the EAP GIL. The GIL Federation is generating rigorous evidence around the world to understand what works, and what does not, in addressing the differential constraints restricting the growth of women-led firms. This note presents evidence on five key findings.

Adolescent girls face multiple challenges that restrict their horizons. They have to make decisions about employment and fertility at an early age with limited access to formal education and under restrictive social norms. Domestic responsibilities limit their time in school and educational achievement, in turn curtailing their ability to enter the labor force. The GIL Federation is generating rigorous evidence on what works, and what does not, in empowering adolescent girls. This note presents evidence on five key findings.

Adolescent girls face multiple challenges that restrict their horizons. They have to make decisions about employment and fertility at an early age with limited access to formal education and under restrictive social norms. Domestic responsibilities limit their time in school and educational achievement, in turn curtailing their ability to enter the labor force. The GIL Federation is generating rigorous evidence on what works, and what does not, in empowering adolescent girls. This note presents evidence on five key findings.